Financial Accounting Exxon Shell Case Essay

Objective: Understanding the impact of stock valuation suspicions on fiscal reports. Task rundown: You are playing the job of a security examiner who as of late began following the Oil and Gas industry. The expert has an assignment to draw a correlation of a few budgetary markers for two industry pioneers: Exxon Mobil and Royal Dutch Shell, in light of their salary articulations and accounting reports (connected toward the finish of this archive) just as the data from the notes to the fiscal summaries summed up beneath. The two organizations seem, by all accounts, to be very comparative and are comparative in size dependent on absolute resources. A private speculator notes, be that as it may, that some money related proportions give off an impression of being unique. Your errand is to control a speculator through the fundamental advances that will assist them with understanding the impact of stock valuation presumptions on the money related proportions. The accompanying data depends on Exxon’s and Shell’s 2011 Annual Reports. Exxon Mobil Foundation data. Exxon Mobil Corporation was fused in the State of New Jersey in 1882. Divisions and partnered organizations of ExxonMobil work or market items in the United States and most different nations of the world. Their foremost business is vitality, including investigation for, and creation of, raw petroleum and flammable gas, assembling of oil based goods and transportation and offer of raw petroleum, gaseous petrol, and oil based goods. NOTES TO FINANCIAL STATEMENTS Inventories. Raw petroleum, items, and product inventories are conveyed at the lower of current market worth or cost (for the most part decided under the rearward in, first-out technique †LIFO). Stock expenses incorporate consumptions and different charges (counting deterioration) legitimately and by implication caused in carrying the stock to its current condition and area. Selling costs and general and managerial costs are accounted for as period costs and barred from stock expense. Inventories of materials and supplies are esteemed at cost or less (i.e., lower of cost or market). The total substitution cost of inventories was assessed to surpass their LIFO conveying esteems by $25.6 billion and $21.3 billion at December 31, 2011, and 2010, individually (Convert LIFO to FIFO).

Short, Wise Quotes About Life

Short, Wise Quotes About Life Astuteness need not generally be verbose. Indeed, probably the smartest, most paramount statements by celebrated individuals are pretty darn short, yet they pack a ton of significance in their punch. Keeping it short functions admirably most likely on account of K.I.S.S.: Keep it straightforward, dumb. George Bernard Shaw: Life isnt about getting yourself. Life is tied in with making yourself. Eleanor Roosevelt: You should do the things you figure you can't do. Straight to the point Lloyd Wright: truly more significant than the facts.​​ Mother Teresa: If you judge individuals, you have no opportunity to cherish them. Lucille Ball: Love yourself first, and everything else becomes all-good. Stephen Colbert: Dreams can change. In the event that we’d all stayed with our first dream, the world would be invaded with cattle rustlers and princesses. Oprah Winfrey: Failure is another venturing stone to enormity. Stephen Hawking: Be interested. Mother Teresa: If you cannot take care of a hundred people, at that point feed only one. William Shakespeare: Love all, trust a few.​ Michelle Obama: Success isnt about how much cash you make. Its about the distinction you make in people groups lives. Wayne Gretzky: You miss 100 percent of the shots you dont take. Gabrielle Giffords​: Be striking, be brave, be your best. Madeleine Albright: Real leadership...comes from understanding that the opportunity has arrived to move past holding up to doing. Angel Ruth: Dont let the dread of striking out keep you down. Seneca: Luck is the thing that happens whenever arrangement meets opportunity. Anna Quindlen: Don’t ever befuddle the two:â your life and your work. The second is just piece of the first. Thomas Jefferson: He who knows best realizes how little he knows. Dolly Parton: If you need the rainbow, you gotta set up with the downpour. Francis David: We need not think the same to adore alike.​ John Quincy Adams: If your activities rouse others to dream more, find out additional, accomplish more, and become more, you are a pioneer. Maya Angelou: People will overlook what you stated, individuals will overlook what you did, yet individuals will always remember how you made them feel.â Malcolm X: If you dont represent something, youll succumb to anything. Hillary Clinton: Every second squandered thinking back shields us from pushing ahead. Thomas A. Edison: Many of lifes disappointments are individuals who didn't understand that they were so near progress when they surrendered. Katie Couric: it's not possible to satisfy everybody, and you cannot make everybody like you. Jon Bon Jovi: Miracles happen each day. Change your view of what a wonder is and youll see them all around you.​ Eleanor Roosevelt: Do one thing consistently that alarms you.â Tina Fey: There are no mix-ups, just chances. Francis Bacon: A reasonable inquiry is one portion of wisdom.​ Sheryl Sandberg: If youre offered a seat on a rocket transport, dont ask what seat! Simply jump on. Eleanor Roosevelt: Remember, nobody can cause you to feel substandard without your assent. Florence Nightingale: I ascribe my prosperity to this: I never gave or took any reason. Edwin Land: Creativity is the unexpected suspension of ineptitude. Maya Angelou: You can’t go through innovativeness. The more you use, the more you have. Mahatma Gandhi: â€Å"Be the change that you wish to find in the world.†Ã¢ Lao Tzu, Tao Te Ching: When I let go of who I am, I become what I may be. Rosa Parks​: When ones brain is made up, this reduces dread. Henry Ford: Whether you want to or you think you can’t, you’re right. Gloria Steinem: Dreaming, all things considered, is a type of planning.​​​ Christopher Reeve: Once you pick trust, anythings conceivable. Kate Winslet: Life is short, and it is here to be lived. Mahatma Gandhi: â€Å"Live as though you were to bite the dust tomorrow. Learn as though you were to live forever.†Ã¢ Alice Walker: The most widely recognized way individuals surrender their capacity is by deduction they don’t have any. Lao Tzu, Tao Te Ching: Great acts are comprised of little deeds. Amelia Earhart: The most troublesome thing is the choice to act. The rest is only diligence. Ellen DeGeneres: Sometimes you cannot see yourself obviously until you see yourself through the eyes of others.â Walt Disney: All our fantasies can work out in the event that we have the mental fortitude to seek after them.

A Change in Attitude at Two Months Smoke-Free

A Change in Attitude at Two Months Smoke-Free June 24, 2019 Brad More in Addiction Coping and Recovery Personal Stories Methods and Support Overcoming Addiction Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Drug Use Nicotine Use As time goes by, it can be easy to lose sight of the reasons why you put out that last cigarette and made the decision to quit smoking. After two months, you might forget how much you hated smoking, how it made you  cough, and the shortness of breath you had to deal with. Its also easy to begin feeling sorry for yourself or think about how miserable you are without cigarettes. It happens to many people, especially after the first few months because we begin to romanticize the good old days of smoking. This is called junkie thinking  and it is a potential pitfall that most ex-smokers will face while recovering from nicotine addiction. Without an attitude adjustment, junkie thinking can easily lead to a smoking relapse.? Brads story below is a great example of an aborted junkie thinking slide. Like so many others who grow weary of the recovery process  that can unfold slowly, Brad was in a slump and starting to feel sorry for himself. Through a chance encounter, however, he found an attitude adjustment that put his priorities back in order. Brads Story: Two Months After Quitting Today marks two days since I quit smoking. Yesterday I was thinking about what I was going to put in my two-month milestone post in the smoking forum I belong to. It was not going to be an optimistic posting. No, what I had planned was pretty much a pity party. A full tilt God, I feel awful. Ive not smoked for two months and I still feel like crap. Will this misery ever end? diatribe. Then I was going to sit back and wait for all the comforting, reassuring replies that I knew forum members would send my way. Kinda pathetic, but its the truth. Then last night happened. The Attitude-Changing Encounter One of the things Ive resumed since quitting is going to yoga classes. I go three to four nights a week. Last night was pretty crowded; I guess a lot of people were getting a session in before they abused their bodies on New Years Eve. It was not a particularly good session for me. My mind kept wandering. I was thinking of the party we were going to that night, wondering if anyone there would have a cigarette, if it would be the moment I was going to slip up, etc. At the end of the class, I noticed an attractive young woman (probably early 30s) that I had never seen before. She was talking to the instructor and I overheard her saying that she was from out of town and was just visiting family for a couple of days. We walked out together and made small talk. I asked her how she came to find out about the yoga studio. She said she hadnt done yoga in a while, so on a whim looked online and found the place. She asked me how long I had been practicing. I told her that I started again when I quit smoking. Then I said I had made it almost two months, and that it was a very hard (theres the poor pitiful me part, again). She looked at me and said, Yes, Ive heard from friends that quitting can be really tough. Good for you for quitting. Then she added, You know, this is kind of an anniversary for me as well. Yeah? I said, What anniversary is it? She paused and looked directly into my eyes for a second. It was just about 5 years ago that I had a double lung transplant. It was like someone had hit me in the back with a sledgehammer and all the air had gone out of my lungs. Did she really say double lung transplant? I just couldnt get my head around it. You read about things like that, but to actually meet someone who had gone through it? It seemed impossible. Really, I said, a double lung transplant? She smiled at me. Yes. I have cystic fibrosis, and without the transplant, I would have died. I stammered around trying to think of something intelligent to say. She was very patient, I guess she had been through this situation before. After a couple of minutes, I got up the courage to say, What does the future look like? She said that after five years, the average was that she would have about a 25% chance of making it another year. But thats just an average. Ive had very little rejection issues, and Im feeling great. We talked for another 20 minutes or so. She runs a non-profit animal rescue mission in Brooklyn. She is director of a non-profit dance company. She has a full-time job. She has a significant other. She is living her life. Im not a religious person. I like to think that I have some degree of spirituality, but there is no organized religion that I would be a part of. However, when she said goodbye, all I could do is say, God bless you, April, God bless you. I can never tell you how much it has meant to me to have met you. And I gave her a long hug. Were Making a Choice Like I said, Im not a religious person, but all day Ive been thinking about her. Its sort of like that movie, Its a Wonderful Life.  As if an angel had come down and tapped me on the shoulder. Almost all of us who are quitting are doing it as a matter of choice. It is tough, it is miserable at times, but we have a choice to continue doing damage to ourselves or do everything we can to beat this awful addiction to nicotine. April does not have a choice. She can only deal with the hand that fate has dealt her. There I was, feeling sorry for myself for being miserable about quitting smoking, and someone who has facedâ€"and is facingâ€"mortality every day came and graced me with her presence. And did it with courage and class. A Word From Verywell Quite often, true freedom from something like an addiction is a state of mind. Pay attention to the positive cues that life sends your way, and work to change what smoking means to you. Give yourself time to heal the habits youve developed around nicotine addiction and you can find lasting freedom just as surely as anyone else has.

10 Mistakes to Avoid During Your College Interview

The Theme of Love in Poetry - 1916 Words

The Theme of Love in Poetry Love is a very common theme in poetry. By closely examining the ways in which two poets(one must be pre 1900) have explored this theme. Show what you have found to be similar/different in their handling of this theme. Many people have different views on love. Many of these views throughout the ages are explored through poetry as love has much contemporary relevance in todays society as it ever did before. Two love poems I read which inspired me were Shakespeares Sonnet 116 and Carol-Anne Duffys Valentine. Shakespeares poem is a traditional sonnet written in the late 1660s Renaissance period when at this time love was not a discussed topic in society. The†¦show more content†¦Loves not times fool, though rosy lips and cheeks It is not times fool because it will be there until the end of Time. Love is not at the mercy of Time. Time may be measured in hours and weeks; loves only proper measure begins where time leaves off the edge of doom. Time may alter beauty, but love will not flinch. To define the permanency and durability of love Shakespeare uses comparisons and metaphors successfully to represent his powerful opinions. Shakespeare uses the metaphor It is the star to every wandering bark, as stars are traditional guiding lights which emphasises the permanency of love - for Elizabethans the stars are fixed as God, as a decoration on the floor of Heaven, places them nothing more fixed. To describe the guidance and security love can offer. Shakespeare verifies his perspective on love as being priceless and precious, although his height be taken. The angle of the star could be measured through instruments - although nothing about the star - in itself - would be known - hence the difference in the poem between worth and height Shakespeare uses imagery, which illustrates his strong perspective on love. Shakespeare uses imagery again to describe love as a movement, which it is not, Or bends with the remover to remove it. Shakespeare uses personification to show the relationship betweenShow MoreRelatedPoetry : Theme Of Love1638 Words   |  7 PagesLove in Poetry Studying the theme of love in poetry can help a relationship to move from one level to another. Poems express love in unique ways that draws the attention of both the poet and the recipient to focus and express love in powerful ways. The choice of words and phrases used in poems can provide the insight lovers needs to keep their love strong and live for as long as possible (Literary Devices, 2015). Sometimes love fades because people take each other for granted and forget expressingRead More The Theme of Love in Poetry Essay4662 Words   |  19 PagesThe Theme of Love in Poetry I have chosen to compare four poems, the first one is Porphyrias Lover. It is written by Robert Browning who died in 1889. The second poem, My Last Duchess, is also by Robert Browning. Browning was a great poet in the Victorian age and married Elizabeth Barratt. The third poem is called First Love. It is written by John Clare (1793-1864). The final poem is Ballad. It is an anonymous poem as no-one knows who wrote ballads. This is because they are wordRead MoreThe Theme of Love and Loss in Poetry Essay2011 Words   |  9 PagesThe Theme of Love and Loss in Poetry How on earth are you ever going to explain in terms of chemistry and physics so important a biological phenomenon as first love? Albert Einstein. The subject of love has always inspired poets, writers, and those lucky in love as well. Love is everything its cracked up to be. It really is worth fighting for, risking everything for. And the trouble is, if you dont risk everything, you risk even more. Some of the poets who are soRead MoreEssay on The Themes of Love in Romantic and Victorian Poetry899 Words   |  4 PagesThe Themes of Love in Romantic and Victorian Poetry Within this essay I shall be comparing the themes of love used in ‘Red, Red Rose’ by Robert Burns, ‘Remember’ by Christina Rossetti, ‘So We’ll Go No More A-Roving’ by Lord Bryon, ‘Sonnet XVIII’ by William Shakespeare and ‘Sonnets from the Portuguese XLIII’ by Elizabeth Barrett Browning. To do this I will analyse the different themes of love portrayed by each poet, how the love is declared and explore the ways in whichRead MoreEssay about Themes of Love and Loss in Poetry1278 Words   |  6 PagesThemes of Love and Loss in Poetry In this essay, we are going to analyse five poems to study the way love and loss are treated in the pre-nineteenth century poems, So, well go no more a roving and When we two parted by Lord Byron, Sonnet 116 by William Shakespeare, How do I love thee? by Elizabeth Barrett-Browning and Remember by Christina Rossetti. After looking at the level of implication of each of the poets in their writing, we will show the way they treatRead MoreThe Themes of Love in Shakespeares Sonnets and Other Poetry Essay1161 Words   |  5 PagesThe Themes of Love in Shakespeares Sonnets and Other Poetry Love poetry has been written for many centuries. The ideas expressed by Shakespeare and Browning are still relevant today. Love is not a tangible thing; it is an emotion so it can be perceived in many different ways. Shakespeare has infamously used sonnets to express his ideas on love. Shall I compare theeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? is a sonnet in which Shakespeare focuses on immortalisation through words. Let me not is anotherRead MoreCompare How the Theme of Love Is Presented in a Selection of Pre-1914 Poetry7665 Words   |  31 PagesCompare how the theme of love is presented in a selection of pre-1914 poetry The theme of love is a universal, timeless issue that has always been discussed and forever will be. People are searching for the true meaning of love and how it is different from person to person and from race to race. Everyone is amazed by how love can make people experience so many emotions and how love can bring sadness and happiness and confusion. ‘La Belle Dame Sans Merci’ By John Keats and ‘Porphyria’s Lover’Read MoreTypes Of Poetry : A Poem Which Deals With Religious Themes, Love, Tragedy, Domestic Crimes, Essay2495 Words   |  10 PagesPoetry Terms Types of Poetry 1. Ballad: A poem which deals with religious themes, love, tragedy, domestic crimes, and even sometimes propaganda. Example- â€Å"Rime of an Ancient Mariner† is an example of a lyrical ballad. ‘Day after day, day after day We stuck nor breathe, nor motion; As idle as a painted ship Upon a painted ocean’ 2. Lyric poem: Any short poem that presents a singular speaker who expresses thoughts and feelings. Love lyrics are common. Sonnets and odes also apply. Example- FallenRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book West 10th And Poetry 1365 Words   |  6 PagesAmerican Contemporary Poetry: Journal critique essay West 10th and Poetry Magazines The importance of poetry in a college student’s life cannot be overemphasized. From ensuring that one is conversant with contemporary social and economic issues as well as generally having a large knowledge base on different subject topics. Poetry is important for the enrichment of the soul and the nourishment of the mind. It also helps us step back and look at things from different perspectives. Like any otherRead More17th Century 16th Century Poetry947 Words   |  4 PagesHow is the poetry of the 17th century different from the poetry of the 16th century? The poetry of the 16th century and the poetry of the 17th century were mainly lyrical. However, this similarity of expressing personal thoughts and feelings did not prevent major differences between both periods whether in themes or in structure. Poetry in Elizabethan time was based on courtly love conventions which included conceits and complements. Themes such as the unattainability of the lady, sleeplessness

Critical Analysis of Mass Spectrometry Free Essays

string(140) " similar methods of ionization and due to this many of the modern day mass spectrometers can switch between these two methods effortlessly\." Introduction 1. Background: The analytical technique that I have chosen to give an in-depth analysis of is Mass Spectrometry (MS) This analytical technique is basically the study of ionised molecules in the gaseous phase; its main use is in the determination of the molecular weight of the molecule in the sample under investigation by accelerating ions in a vacuum environment. While this analytical technique has been around for over one hundred years there are significant advances being made to this technique in order to cater for more adverse samples which will be discussed in more detail later on. We will write a custom essay sample on Critical Analysis of Mass Spectrometry or any similar topic only for you Order Now The main difference between mass spectrometry and other spectroscopy methods such as NMR is that it not dependant on transitions between energy states which may be responsible for its popularity. The diagram shown below (Figure 1.1.) [1] shows a simple diagram of a common mass spectrometer using electron ionization: Figure 1.1 represents a schematic diagram of an electron ionization-mass spectrometer showing the various processes involved. Courtesy of www.molecularstation.com. In its simplest form the process of determining the molecular weight of the sample typically occur over four main stages which are: Sample volatilisation, Ionisation, Separation and detection. Sample volatilisation: The sample to be analysed if gaseous or volatile can be readily inserted into the mass spectrometer with the more solid samples requiring heating before insertation in order to construct a more volatile or gaseous sample. As can be seen form the above figure the sample is then moved further down the spectrometer towards the area where ionization of the molecules occurs. Ionization: The sample is then hit with a barrage of high energy electrons from an electron gun with a charge of around 70 electron volts (eV). When the molecules collide with the high energy electron beam energy is transferred from the beam to the molecules which cause an acceleration of the molecules. These molecules may then dump an electron forming cation known as the molecular ion (M+†¢) [2]. This interchange is represented in the equation below (Figure 1.2.): M+ e–M+†¢ + 2e– Moleccular Ion This electron barrage usually results in most of the molecular ions fragmenting causing some of the fragments to not gain any charge and remain neutral and have no further part to play. The main purpose of ionisation is to donate a charge to the sample in order for the molecules to break up and become charged. The ionization method discussed here is electron ionisation however there are many other more methods of ionization which will be discussed in detail later on in my analysis. Separation: This beam of newly charged molecular ions then proceed through a mass analyzer which in this case is a very strong controllable magnetic field which separates the charged molecules according to their mass to charge ratio (m/z) causing some of the molecules which are â€Å"too heavy† or â€Å"too light† to be thrown towards the top or bottom of the spectrometer and hence avoid detection. By varying the magnetic field, ions with different m/z values can be detected. Just like there are many different ionization methods for different applications there are also several types of mass analyzers which will also be discussed later. A fundamental consideration in mass spectrometry at this point is mass resolution, defined as R = M/?M. where R is the resolution, M is the mass of particle and ?M is the mass difference compared to adjacent peak with overlap at 10% of peak height. Nowadays a magnetic sector analyzer can have R values of 2000-7000 depending on the instrument [3]. Detection: the final stage in the process is comprised of a detector which then amplifies and records the mass of the ions according to their m/z values. The detector may be set up for detection of molecular ions possessing different mass to charge ratios. The Molecular ions each have a mass that is almost identical to the mass of the molecule (M) and due to the fact that the charges on most of the molecules are usually 1, the value of m/z obtained for each of the ions is simply its mass. The data collected by the detector is fed to a recorder and is presented in the form of a plot of the numbers of ions versus their m/z values [3]. An example of this type of plot is shown below in figure 1.3. [4]: Figure 1.3: A typical graph produced for a sample using mass spectrometry. Picture courtesy of www.research.uky.edu. 2. Methods of Ionization: Electron Ionization (EI): as described above is the simplest method for converting the sample to ions and this method is found on the most common mass spectrometers. Many other simple and complex ionization methods exist for analyzing various samples. Some of these methods include: Chemical Ionization (CI): This is a softer ionization method than EI, causing less fragmentation of the sample under investigation and hence it is mainly used for more sensitive compounds such as 2, 2-dimethylpropane for example which is prone to fragment with little stress. This decrease in fragmentation is due to the ions arising from a chemical reaction rather than bombardment and hence possesses less energy than those produced from EI. In Chemical ionization the molecules to be studied are mixed with an ionized carrier gas which is present in excess. Common carrier gases for CI include ammonia, methane, isobutene and methanol. The selection of the carrier gas depends on the degree of ion fragmentation required. Different carrier gases produce different mass spectra plots. The main advantage of CI is its softer approach lending to clearer results over EI for some samples. Other advantages include the relatively cheap and strong hardware as with EI. The main drawback of using chemi cal ionization in mass spectrometry is the fact that like electron ionization the sample must be readily vaporised in order for the molecules to gain that vital charge. This immediately dismisses the use of high molecular weight compounds and biomolecules [3]. It’s obvious therefore that CI and EI are very similar methods of ionization and due to this many of the modern day mass spectrometers can switch between these two methods effortlessly. You read "Critical Analysis of Mass Spectrometry" in category "Essay examples" Electrospray Ionization (ESI): is a type of atmospheric pressure ionization. This technique is very useful for studying the high biomolecular weight molecules and other samples which may not be very volatile as discussed above. The sample to be investigated is sprayed through a fine capillary which has a charge on its surface, the sample then enters the ionization chamber resulting in the production of multiple charged ions along with single charged ions. This formation of multiple charged ions is very useful in the mass spectrometry analysis of proteins [3]. It is important to note that negative ions may also be formed in ESI and the operation may need to be reversed. ESI has become much more common over the last few years as it relies on a sample in solution which permits its use in LC-MS [5]. Thermospray Ionization (TSI) is closely related to ESI differing only in the fact that it relies on a heated capillary rather than a charged capillary; however ESI remains the more popular of the two methods. Atmospheric-pressure chemical Ionization (APCI): It is obvious form the title that APCI is also a form of atmospheric pressure ionization resulting in a similar interface being used for both methods. This method was born in the 1970’s when it was first combined with liquid chromatography (LC) by Horning et al [6] who conveyed a new atmospheric ion source which used 63Ni beta emission in order to produce the required ions. Even tough APCI and ESI are harmonizing methods the main advantage APCI has over ESI is that it is more effective at determining the mass spectra for less polar compounds due to the reality that the gas phase ionization is more effective in APCI. Many MS instruments are now readily available with high mass resolution and accurate mass measurement, properties which are not as readily available with GC-MS instruments. Fast Atom Bombardment (FAB): this type of ionization method is primarily used for large polar molecules. The sample to be studied is usually dissolved in a liquid matrix which is non-volatile and polar such as glycerol. This sample is then bombarded with a fast atom beam such as Xe– atoms which picks up electrons thus causing ionization from this reaction. This is a simple and fast method to use and is very good for high-resolution measurements. On the downside however it may be hard to compare low molecular weight compounds from the chemical back ground which is always high [5]. Desorption Chemical Ionization (DCI), Negative-ion chemical ionization (NCI), Field Ionization (FI) and Ion Evaporation are other less common ionization methods used in mass spectrometry. 3. Mass Analysers: As described earlier the mass analyzers are used to separate the various ions according to their mass to charge ratio (m/z) and hence focus the ions with the desirable m/z value towards the detector. Some of the mass analyzers available include; Double-Focusing Mass Analyzers, Quadrupole Mass Analyzers, Time-of-Flight Mass Analyzers and Ion Trap Mass Analyzers. Double-Focusing Mass Analyzers are used when a high resolution is of paramount importance. This high resolution is achieved by modifying the basic magnetic design. The beam of ions passes through an electrostatic analyser before or after the magnetic field causing the particles to travel at the same velocity resulting in the resolution of the mass analyzer increasing dramatically. Resolution may be varied by using narrower slits before the detector. It is important to note that this type of analyzer reduces sensitivity but increases accuracy resulting in a fine line between success and failure with regards to detection, for this reason this type of mass analyzer is only used for very selective purposes. Quadrupole Mass Analyzers do not make use of magnetic forces for mass detection; instead they are composed of four solid rods arranged parallel to the direction of the ion beam. Using a combination of direct-current and radiofrequency the quadrupole separates the various ions according to their mass extremely quickly. Quadrupole mass analyzers are most on most GC-MS instruments. Time-of-Flight Mass Analyzers (TOF) operate by measuring the time taken for an ion which has been produced to travel for the ion source to the detector [7]. This is based on the simple assumption that the lighter ions will have a greater velocity and thus will strike the detector first. This type of analyzer has become more and more common in recent years due to the fact that the electronics used in this analyzer have become much more affordable since it was first introduced in the 1940’s. In recent years the resolution and sensitivity of TOF have been increased by the insertation of a reflective plate within the flight tube itself [8]. The main area that this type of analyzer is used is in Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-MS) discussed later. The Ion Trap Mass Analyzer is composed of two hyperbolic end cap electrodes and a doughnut shaped ring electrode [7]. It is very similar to the quadrupole analyzer in resolution terms and basics however the ion trap is more sensitive. 4. The Mass Spectra: The main interest that anybody has from the mass spectra is the molecular weight of the sample that was processed. The value of m/z at which the molecular ion (M+†¢) appears on the mass spectrum tell us the molecular weight of the original molecule. The most saturated ion formed from the ionization provides us with the tallest peak in the spectra know as the base peak (Figure 1.2). From this information the determination of very exact molecular weights of substances may be deduced which is probably the most important application of mass spectrometers. This determination also allows use to distinguish between different substances with a very similar molecular mass which we are unable to do ourselves. For example; the molecule C14H14 has a molecular mass of 182.1096 and the molecule C12H10N2 has a molecular mass of 182.0844. These two molecules may only be differentiated by MS as there is only 0.0252 in the difference even tough they are two completely different molecules. The typ e of MS instrument used in this case is a Double Focusing Mass Spectrometer as discussed briefly above which is capable of providing measurements accurate to 0.0001 atomic mass units. The chance of two compounds having the exact same mass spectra is very unlikely and therefore it is possible to identify an unknown compound by comparing its mass spectra obtained with that of a known library of mass spectra for various compounds. 5. Mass Spectrometry in Synergy with other Techniques: Through the years mass spectrometers have evolved to be used not just on their own but used in tandem with a range of other analytic techniques such as Liquid Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) in purity assessment and investigating rat urine, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) for the detection and measurement of illicit drugs in biological fluids. It is LC-MS that has become the gold standard for detection and analyzation of substances. Gas chromatography works particularly well with mass spectrometry too, due to the face that the sample is already in its gaseous form at the interface. This system has been used by De Martinis and Barnes [9] in the detection of drugs in sweat using a quadrupole mass spectrometer which has been discussed earlier. The ability to identify metabolites in the biological fluids mentioned above can be very difficult and this is due to the fact that these metabolites are present in extremely low concentrations such as parts per mill ion (ppm) or even less in some situations. For many years Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) was used to identify these metabolites but in recent times it would appear that mass spectrometry has become the more popular method for detection of the metabolite. This may be due to the fact that MS is more sensitive than NMR resulting in less sample amount being required. 6. Advances in Mass Spectrometry Instruments and their Limitations: As mentioned briefly above it is very difficult to study large biomolecules such as proteins due to the fact that they are large polar molecules which are not volatile and as a result are difficult to convert to a gaseous state in order to undergo ionization. In recent years a solution to this problem has been accomplished with the introduction of Matrix- Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization (MALDI). MALDI is a laser based soft ionization method which relies on the sample being dissolved in a solution containing an excess of matrix such as sinapinic acid which has a chromophore that absorbs at the laser wavelength, the sample is placed in the path of high intensity protons causing a collision of the atoms with the sample resulting in ionization of the sample molecules causing them to be ejected from the matrix. One of the main advantages of MALDI-MS is that only a very tiny amount of sample is required (1 X 10-5 moles) [3]. This technique has proven to be one of the most successful ionization methods for mass spectrometry analysis of large molecules due to its soft ionization ability. This technique has been used in the drug-biomolecule complexes in order to investigate the interaction properties and sites of biomolecules with various drugs on the market today [10]. This method was also used by Zschorning et al. to investigate the extracts of human lipoproteins after treatment wi th cholesterol esterase’s [11]. This method although very popular suffers some drawbacks. There is a strong dependence on the sample preparation method and any mistake made during sample preparation or any contamination introduced into the matrix during the sample preparation renders the rest of the investigation pointless. Another draw back of this method is the short sample life although some research has been undertaken [12] with the use of liquid matrices in the belief that this may increase the sample life by making use of the self-healing properties of the sample through molecular diffusion. One obvious drawback that may occur is the fact that the sample may not be soluble and hence may not dissolve in the matrix. This problem may be overcome with the use of compression of a finely ground sample and analyte [13]. Another disadvantage which may become of detrimental in the future is the fact that MALDI is not easily compatible with LC-MS, this problem may have to be rectified id the popularity of MALDI is to c ontinue. Electrospray Ionization (ESI) has been described in detail under the methods of ionization section above and it can be seen that this young technique is proving to be very useful with LC-MS to investigate the a variety of molecules including proteins, DNA and synthetic polymers. The main problem with ESI-MS is that the mass spectra produced may contain many peaks of multiply charged ions which may cause confusion in the interpretation of spectra of some samples. The ESI instrument itself can also present with decreased sensitivity due to the presence of impurities such as salts and buffers, this is not the case with MALDI. Although both MALDI and ESI are both very effective methods of developing mass spectra for large molecules such as proteins, MALDI still remains the method of choice for most analyses. However, as discussed above the fact that MALDI is not very compatible with LC-MS may pave the way for a surge in popularity of the LC-MS friendly ESI. 7. The Future of Mass Spectrometry: Mass spectrometry has come along way since 1897 when Joseph J. Thompson used an early mass spectrometer to discover the electron and there is no reason why the mass spectrometer will continue to advance and evolve into the foreseeable future. The mass spectrometer is an extremely versatile analytical tool which can work in tandem and alongside other analytical methods such as chromatography seamlessly. The main areas in which mass spectrometers have been used for quantification of compounds are LC-MS and GC-MS using the various ionization methods respectively. LC-MS is the gold standard in quantitative bioanalyses and is used by the majority pharmaceutical companies. The other minority tend to use other techniques such as High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and UV as they deem LC-MS to be too expensive. An area of mass spectrometry to watch out for in the future is the use of ion-trap technology to perform LC-MS-MS to LC-MS [7]. This method already exists but reliable routine bioanalytical assays have not been produced as of yet. References: [1]http://www.molecularstation.com/molecular-biology-images/506-molecular-biology-pictures/21-mass-spectrometer.html [2]Daniel C. Harris: Quantitative Chemical Analysis, sixth edition (2003) published by W. H. Freeman and Company, New York. [3]Donald L. Pavia, Gary M. Lampman, George S. Kriz and James R. Vyvyan: Introduction to Spectroscopy, fourth edition, published by Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learing. [4]www.research.uky.edu/ukmsf/whatis.html [5]Ionization Methods in Organic Mass Spectrometry [6]Horning, E.C., Caroll, D.J., Dzidic, I., Haegele, K.D., Horning, M.G., andStillwell,R.N. (1974). Atmospheric pressure ionization (API) mass spectrometry. Solvent-mediated ionization of samples introduced in solution and in a liquid chromatograph effluent stream, J. Chromatography. Sci, 12, (11), 725-729 [7]RF Venn (Ed) (2000) Principles and practice of Bioanalysis Taylor and Francis. [8]Ashcroft, A.E. (1997) Ionisation Methods in Organic Mass Spectrometry, Cambridge, UK: The Royal Society of Chemistry. [9]http://www.asms.org/whatisms/p1.html: The American Society of Mass Spectrometry [10]Skelton, R., Dubols, F., Zenobl, R. Analytical Chemistry (2000), 72, 1707-1710 [11]Zschornig, Markus Pietsch, Roesmarie SuB., Jurgen Schiller and Michael Gutschow. Cholesterol esterase action on human high density lipoproteins and inhibition studies: detection by MALDI-TOF MS. [12]Zenobi, R, Knochenmuss, R. Mass Spectrom, Rev. 1999, 17, 337-366. How to cite Critical Analysis of Mass Spectrometry, Essay examples

Balance Between Security and Privacy

Question: Discuss about the Balance Between Security and Privacy. Answer: Introduction: In the contemporary era, the biggest technological and social change is due to the increasing and uninterrupted growth of the internet and its uses. However, the increasing dependence on internet and cyberspace has lead to the emergence of new risks and threats to cyber security for the users. Growing dependence on internet and cyberspace lead to new risks and risk of compromising or damaging the key data on which a person relies. The data is being harmed, compromised or damaged in a way which is hard to detect and cant be defended. Cyber security is an issue which surrounds the positive side and essence of internet nowadays. The internet was designed to be secure but after all, it was never a secure framework though by design it is borderless, horizontal, interoperable and secure but internet is not secure and always poses threat to key data and information. Cyber security is a combination of technology, practices and processes which are grouped together to protect computers, data, information, networks and programs from attacks, crimes, damage or unauthorized access that takes place online with the help of internet access (TechTarget, 2016). Cyber security and physical security both are included in security when talking in a computing context. Cyber security is needed when the key data and information are attacked by hackers, intruders or terrorist without any permission and results in making an unauthorized access to the material information. In case of a cyber-crime, cyber security is needed (Conventus Law, 2016; Prakash, 2017). Cyber crimes emerge out as a new breed of crime which is committed using computers or something related to them. Cyber crimes are originating because of the growing dependence and over dependence on computers and internet. In the modern life, as everything is being computed and run with the help of computer and internet, cyber crimes and cyber attacks are growing day by day. Internet and computers are becoming a necessary requirement for everyone today and they are undoubtedly contributing towards the ease of doing things. However, despite being so helpful and advantageous internet have claimed with the issues of cyber crime and attacks which results in compromising and damaging the material information and key data. On one hand, the advanced internet and computer technologies enhanced the experience of its users, while on the other hand cyber crime and cyber attacks are making it even harder to protect personal, material or key information or data. So, this essay will examine the en hancement and growth of internet but majorly focuses on the cyber security, its effectiveness and need in the present environment of uncountable cyber attacks and crimes. Recommendations are also provided in order to find the best solution for solving the issues of cyber security breaches. Cyber security has the most problematic element of constantly and quickly changing or evolving nature of security risks. Over the last half century, the industry of information technology has evolved increasingly which results in faster, smaller, easier, cheaper and lighter use of IT hardware. (The Economic Times, 2017). Information and communication technology devices are interdependent and breakdown of one can lead to a drastic impact on many others. With the passage of time, experts and professionals have come to the point and expressed the serious concerning issues of protecting information and communication technology systems from being affected and breached by cyber attacks. Cyber attacks are unauthorized access and deliberate attempts to make use, compromise and damage material information by unauthorized persons, intruders, hackers and terrorist. Their objective can be of theft, unlawful actions, damage or disruption. There are increasing number of cyber attacks in Australia and are expected to rise in number in the near time. This is because in future more and more information will be stored electronically and the ability of the cyber attackers to collect, store and analyze the information will grow. The act of protecting IT systems gives birth to the concept of cyber security (Fischer, 2016; Klimburg, 2017). A recent survey of Australian Cyber Security Centre which was conducted among the partner organizations of ACSC concluded that majority of the organizations has suffered security breaches in last year. It is accounted that Australia is the only country which has a maximum number of recorded cyber security incidents than rest of the world. Australian businesses are experiencing losses up to the average budget allocated to security. 58% of the organizations are facing this serious issue of cyber security threats and issues. It is accounted that in 99% of the organizations phishing and social engineering were the most common methods of cyber attacks followed by malware and denial of services (Pearce, 2017). Another cyber crime issue was held in the US health insurer anthem. An administrator noticed that there is an unusual complex query which was running on their computer networks. This resulted in the exposure of sensitive and valuable information of patients and has revealed the unpre pared nature of health industry towards these kinds of cyber attacks. Moreover, recently at a leading childbirth charity, a computer hack resulted in breaching and loss of information of more than 15000 expectant parents including their usernames, email address, and passwords. It happened because of a breach of national childbirth trust (Pearce, 2017). Some of the issues mentioned above are against the law as well against the ethical aspect, thus proved unethical. There is a need to have a significant balance between the privacy and security. In this developing world of e-commerce and internet, privacy is one of the important aspects. Privacy is defined as the right of a person specifying the boundaries and limitations which limit the extent to which the rest of the people can intrude upon or interact with. A person is having full right to control the information related to him or her. The meaning of privacy differs from person to person and everyone see privacy with a different perspective (Business Dictionary, 2017). Similarly, security is the act of the organization to secure and protect digitally transmitted and stored information. Hence, it is very important to identify, understand and analyze ethical issues on privacy and security and associated implications of it. According to the theory of utilitarianism, it states that the decision to be made in any situation will come from the one which is the most advantageous to most and majority of people. The theory states that in the situation where the majority of people are happy with any action, the action will be considered right. Cyber crimes are a result of the lack of knowledge among people about these types of crimes and their happenings. Thus, it can be said that cyber crimes are unethical as well as illegal from the utilitarian theory as it is not benefitting any one and proves to be disadvantageous for all the people. Deontology theory states that when ethics are in play people should stick to their duties and responsibilities during decision making. From the point of view of the people and layman whose information are getting compromised, in this context companies are deontologically wrong in ethical context as they are not adhering their moral responsibilities and duties. The ethical theor y of virtue judges a person by his or her character rather than by any action or work which may deviate from the normal behavior of a person. Thus, the actions of cyber security crime are considered virtually wrong in ethical context as the when the theory judged moral, reputation and motivation of the hackers which seems to be unusual and irregular behavior, so it is considered unethical (Moreland, 2017; Larry Chonko, 2017). In line with the above- stated issues there are some recommendations which can help in resolving the problems. It is recommended that companies and organizations should use the technologically advanced system so that it becomes difficult for the hackers to gain access to the information. The government should make compulsory for every organization to be prepared for any cyber security attack and should have a security system so that the attacks are prevented well before they get worse. Moreover, the government should impose fines on the organizations of not taking proper care of the material personal and confidential information. The companies having personal information of their customers should make a promise to its customers and make them trust on them that their information is safe and secure with the company and there are no chances of compromise and damage to their information. In addition to this, people should be made aware about the illegal and unethical practices of cyber s ecurity crimes so that the number of crimes can be reduced up to an extent. Moreover, the government should also focus on enforcing the strong privacy and security laws and also upgrading the privacy procedures and policies with the objective of maintaining privacy breach. This will make more authorized users of information eliminating many fraud and illegal access. It will also let the user have full control on their information and any access to their information will be done with their consent. The essay starts with the current state of the internet, computer, and technology in the modern world. It also highlights the uses and need of internet and its importance in daily life which leads to the overdependence on the internet. Further, the essay is followed by examples, statistics and recorded cases of cyber security crime which can act as the supporters of our argument. Afterwards ethical analysis of these cyber crime issues is done with the help of ethical theories and it reflects why these actions are wrong when placed opposite ethics. In the end, various recommendations are provided to settle the problems of cyber security crime and with the objective of reducing the number of recorded cyber crime cases. Therefore, a conclusion can be made that no matter how important internet and other information and communication technologies are in our lives, there are many loop holes which affect material and key information of a person, organization or government. So there is a nee d to work hard on this matter to provide better service specifically in the areas of privacy and security and leads to a balance between the two of them. References Business Dictionary, 2017. Privacy. [Online] Available at: https://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/privacy.html [Accessed 13 may 2017]. Conventus Law, 2016. Cyber Security: The Balance Between Security And Privacy. [Online] Available at: https://www.conventuslaw.com/report/cyber-security-the-balance-between-security-and/ [Accessed 13 may 2017]. Fischer, E. A., 2016. Cybersecurity Issues and Challenges: In Brief, s.l.: s.n. Klimburg, A., 2017. National Cyber Security, s.l.: s.n. Larry Chonko, 2017. Ethical Theories, s.l.: s.n. Moreland, J. P., 2017. Ethics Theories: Utilitarianism Vs. Deontological Ethics. [Online] Available at: https://www.equip.org/article/ethics-theories-utilitarianism-vs-deontological-ethics/ [Accessed 12 may 2017]. Pearce, R., 2017. Cyber Security Centre survey reveals alarming rate of data breaches. [Online] Available at: https://www.computerworld.com.au/article/617897/cyber-security-centre-survey-reveals-alarming-rate-data-breaches/ [Accessed 12 may 2017]. Prakash, V., 2017. 1306 words free sample essay on Cyber Crime. [Online] Available at: https://www.preservearticles.com/201106117816/1306-words-free-sample-essay-on-cyber-crime.html [Accessed 13 may 2017]. TechTarget, 2016. Cyber Security. [Online] Available at: https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/cybersecurity [Accessed 13 may 2017]. The Economic Times, 2017. Definition of 'Cyber Security'. [Online] Available at: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/cyber-security [Accessed 13 may 2017].

Howard Beckers Labelling Theory

Supply and Demand Simulation Essays

Supply and Demand Simulation Essays Supply and Demand Simulation Essay Supply and Demand Simulation Essay Supply and Demand Simulation Name: Course: Instructor: Institution: Date: Supply and Demand Simulation According to Adams (2002), microeconomics is the interaction and behavior of individual units in an economy. On the other hand, however, he says that macroeconomics looks at the economy as an aggregate. While microeconomics has a narrow view of the economy, macroeconomics looks at the economy from a broad perspective. In the simulation, for example, Atlantis city is a small and friendly city with adequate infrastructure, which makes it suitable to habit. This can be viewed as the macroeconomic viewpoint of the city since the analysis covers a broad spectrum. The simulation further indicates that there is a low traffic and very little pollution and low crime rate. This establishes a more narrow perspective of the city, looking at individual components of the city that makes it conducive living environment. Adequate infrastructure is also a generalized concept making it a macro economic viewpoint of the city. The mention of the parks and housing narrows down the field into two differen t sublets of infrastructure, that is, housing and recreational facilities (microeconomic concepts). A shift in the demand and supply curve can move to the right or to the left depending on different market forces. A shift to the right of the supply curve would indicate that there has been a subsequent increase in the supply of two-bedroom apartments. There was a shift in the demand curve to the right. This was due to an increase in demand affected by the fact that a new company, Lintech, moved to the city, and there was therefore a population increase and a subsequent increase in demand of two-bedroom apartments. The entry of new population had an in income, which made them prefer detached houses. Demand for two-bedroom apartments went down resulting to a shift in to the left in the demand curve. Goodlife went further and converted 400 apartments out of their 3200 into condominiums. This resulted in a shift in the supply curve to the left. Equilibrium is the point at which the demand and supply curve meet in the middle. This is the point at which the supply of goods and services is directly proportionate to the demand of the same goods and services. In this simulation, it would be the point at which the supply of apartments meets the market demand at a price set by the forces of demand and supply. The equilibrium price was initially at 1050 dollars, and the quantity supplied was 2000 apartment units. A shift to the right in the demand curve, occasioned by an increase in population from Lintech, increases the price of the units supply remaining constant. In terms of decision-making, it will be prudent for the supplier to increase the supply. However, change in the preferences of the consumers occasioned by an increase in income levels meant demand would decrease. The conversion of apartments into condominiums decreased the supply of the apartments. A decrease in demand of the two-bedroom apartments due to change in preferences lead to a decrease in supply, and therefore, the demand and the supply curves would shift to the left. What happens to the equilibrium rental rate and quantity will depend on which of the two effects is stronger. The shift in supply were more than the shift in demand, for example, it would mean that there would be a shortage at the equilibrium rental rate meaning that supply will be lower than what is demanded. Meaning, the company will have to offer fewer apartment units than the potential customer is willing to spend on them. The rental rate would have to go up so that the quantity demanded reduces until there is a reduction in shortage. This process goes on until a new equilibrium point is reach ed. The forces of demand and supply are extremely important in the business world. These forces are subject to various factors on the side of both the consumer and supplier. For example, an increase in demand will be subject to not only price, but also taste and preferences, the income level of the consumer market and even the size of the market. Increase of supply is also affected by various other factors such as price of related goods, size of population among others. In the phone industry, for example, the demand is mainly geared by pricing, but other factors must be put into play. Why would one consider buying an iPhone when it is deemed very expensive? It is simply because the Apple phone company has curved out a niche in providing excellent quality phones that are easy to use. It is therefore crucial to consider the market trends to ensure one’s products are always relevant. It is important to consider all these in one’s entrepreneurial ventures. Microeconomics, as aforementioned, deals and interacts with the individual units of the economy. In the real estate business, microeconomics will look at the various living conditions of different parts of the city and determine who lives there. Microeconomics may analyze the individual aspects that may affect an industry, for example, increase in earnings, population patterns and customer preferences in real estate. An affluent area will have fewer accommodation units directly proportionate to the few who earn high salaries, and less affluent areas will have more people due to the highly affordable housing units. Macroeconomics, on the other hand, would look at the economy from a broader perspective; it determines demand and supply in the whole city of Atlantis having the issues discussed in microeconomics under one umbrella. Equilibrium in essence would be a culmination of price and quantity determined at the micro level. Price elasticity of demand simply refers to customer’s responsiveness or sensitivity to changes in price (Ferrell Hartline, 2008). In the simulation, an increase in price led to a decrease in the demand of apartments. The simulation recommended that the price should be optimized to achieve maximum profits, while at the same time ensuring that the pricing would still be favorable to the customer. This is the point of equilibrium. Prices above this point would lead to surplus and prices below would lead to a shortage. The simulation has been effective in determining the effectiveness of the forces of demand and supply. References Adams, F. G. (2002). Macroeconomics for business and society: A developed/developing country perspective on the â€Å"new economy†. New Jersey: World Scientific. Ferrell, O. C., Hartline, M. D. (2008). Marketing strategy. Mason, OH: Thomson/South-Western.

Advanced HealthCare Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Advanced HealthCare Management - Essay Example Conversely, a team may be defined as comprising a group of individuals. In such a way, it can be determined that a group can only develop into a team if there is a drive to reach some form of coordinated consensus or particular goal. Within such an understanding, the reader can come to the appreciation of the fact that the ultimate evolutionary goal of each and every group is to arrive at the â€Å"team† stage of development. Furthermore, an added level of differential exists between formal and informal groups. As one might expect, formal groups are created and/or maintained as a means of fulfilling certain and specific tasks with relation to the needs and demands of a particular entity and/or organization. Such a level of conscious and deliberate creation helps to constrain and formalize them into units that would not otherwise naturally exist or be spontaneously evidenced within the professional/business/or corporate environment. However, informal groups are the result of the spontaneous forces that can encourage individuals to come together while working to develop a variety of goals. Informal groups can be predicated on either useful or un-useful metrics. An example of a useful metric could be the fact that an informal group could come together as a means of tackling an extant problem that all stakeholders had come to notice (Hongseok et al, 2004). Conversely, an un-useful means by which such an info rmal group could be created would be based on a shared dislike for an individual or group of individuals. Although these organizational standards and means of application for teams, formal, and informal groups are all different, it must be understood that they each have their place in seeking to speak to the needs of the individuals and organizations that create and sponsor them. Hongseok, O., Myung-Ho, C., & Labianca, G. (2004). GROUP SOCIAL CAPITAL AND GROUP EFFECTIVENESS: THE ROLE OF INFORMAL SOCIALIZING TIES. Academy Of Management Journal,

Any topics is fine, as long as connected to microeconomic theories Term Paper

Any topics is fine, as long as connected to microeconomic theories - Term Paper Example Therefore, drawing on a variety of sources the paper will discuss how a decrease in price caused by an increase in the number of supplier shifts the supply curve to the right based on an article on oil prices reduction. Supply is the amount of goods manufacturers or suppliers are willing to sell at a certain price (Colander, 2008). The law of supply says that the higher the price of a product, the more the quantity suppliers or firms will be willing to produce and sell (Hall & Lieberman, 2012). Supply is usually plotted as a supply curve demonstrating the link between price and the amount of products producers are ready to bring to the market and sell. As a result, it slopes from left to right. There are various factors that affect supply, First is the technology used to produce the good. If a firm uses advanced technologies to produce the product, more products will be manufactured increasing supply. Secondly is the price of the product. There is a proportional relationship between price and supply. If the price of a commodity increases, it will result in a proportionate increase in the quantities supplied. Third is the number of firms. When the number of manufacturers increases, there are more suppliers in the market leading to a drop in the price of the commodities supplied. Next is the price of alternative goods (Varian, 2009). When the price of an alternative good rises, the manufacturers find it profitable increasing production. Fifth are the future expectations of the producers. When the producers are looking forward to an increase in price in the future, they can increase their production so as to earn more profits in the future (Perloff, 2007). Consequently, the s upply increases. Sixth is the price of inputs also affect supply. Goodwin, Nelson, Ackerman, and Weissskopf (2009) observe that an increase in the price of land, labor, and raw materials

Water fluoridation

Water fluoridation ABSTRACT The safety and efficacy of water fluoridation has been a topic of great controversy throughout Americas communities. Scientific evidence has shown that ingesting low to moderate levels of fluoride can benefit the dental health of a community, especially those populations in a community that may be classified as having low socioeconomic status. Children in all areas, but especially those with low SES, are at greatest risk for developing dental caries and having a community water fluoridation program (CWFP) will help them reduce their dental caries. Moderation of fluoride ingestion for individuals is the key. Low to moderate daily ingestion of fluoride, averaging 1.0 mg/liter per day is optimum. Dental and skeletal fluorosis can occur if ingestion levels are greater than 3.0 mg/liter per day for long periods of time. This is a discussion on the safety and efficacy of water fluoridation. INTRODUCTION This commentary presents the on-going controversy on community water fluoridation in the United States, and I will attempt to analyze science-based evidence in support of water fluoridation. There have always been questions on the safety and efficacy of fluoride in drinking water, some school of thought believes that fluoridation has some adverse effects to exposed human populations, especially in infants and children. Another school of thought believes that water fluoridation is essential in preventing tooth decay, and therefore the practice should be sustained. According to the Center for Disease Control and prevention (CDC) water fluoridation is one of the 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century in the United States (CDC, 1999), which is attributable for increased lifespan of Americans by 25 years ( Bunker et al., 1994). This paper will discuss science-based evidence that proves the efficacy and safety of water fluoridation among children as well as offer some reco mmendations to the various stakeholders. POSITION STATEMENT Water fluoridation is the adjustment of the concentration level to the optimally regulated level of which the naturally occurring fluoride presents in public or community drinking water supplies. In most cases, deflouridation is needed when the naturally occurring fluoride level exceeds recommended limits. The recommended fluoride concentration in drinking water by the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) is 0.7-1.2mg/L, to effectively prevent dental caries and minimize the occurrence of dental fluorosis (NRC, 2006). Low decay rates were found to be associated with continuous use of water with fluoride content of 1ppm (Meskin, 1995). There has been serious questions as to the efficacy of fluoride intervention in preventing both tooth decay, as it benefit is said to be merely cosmetic or topical (CDC, 1999). Such topical effect of fluoride can be achieved by the use tooth without the risking the overexposure from ingested fluoride (NRC, 2006). However, it has also been reported that fluor ide exposure provides both systemic and topical protection. Ingested fluoride deposited on tooth surface during tooth formation, and fluoride contained in saliva provides long-lasting systemic protection against booth tooth decay than topical application using tooth paste or fluoride foams (CDC, 2001). WHAT IS FLUORIDE Fluoride is a naturally occurring element. It is found in rocks and soil everywhere. Fluoride can be found in fresh water and ocean water. Naturally occurring fluoride levels ranges from 0.1ppm to over 12ppm (NRC, 2006).Fluoride is present in the customary diets of people and in most portable water sources. The average dietary intake of fluoride is approximately 0.5mg daily from either naturally occurring fluoride in the water or the fluoride found in produce. It is also a normal component of tooth enamel and bone studies have shown that the calcified tissues of both enamel and bone are made up of a combination of hydroxyl- and fluor-apatites of varying composition depending on the abundance of fluoride at the site of formation. These tissues are the principal sites of deposition of fluoride (NRC, 2006). HOW FLUORIDE PREVENTS AND CONTROLS DENTAL CARIES Dental caries is an infectious, transmissible disease in which bacterial by-products (i.e., acids) dissolve the hard surfaces of teeth. Unchecked, the bacteria can penetrate the dissolved surface, attack the underlying dentin, and reach the soft pulp tissue. Dental caries can result in loss of tooth structure, pain, and tooth loss and can progress to acute systemic infection. Cryogenic bacteria (i.e., bacteria that cause dental caries) reside in dental plaque, a sticky organic matrix of bacteria, food debris, dead mucosal cells, and salivary components that adheres to tooth enamel. Plaque also contains minerals, primarily calcium and phosphorus, as well as proteins, polysaccharides, carbohydrates, and lipids. Cryogenic bacteria colonize on tooth surfaces and produce polysaccharides that enhance adherence of the plaque to enamel. Left undisturbed, plaque will grow and harbor increasing numbers of cryogenic bacteria. An initial step in the formation of a carious lesion takes place when cryogenic bacteria in dental plaque metabolize a substrate from the diet (e.g., sugars and other fermentable carbohydrates) and the acid produced as a metabolic by-product demineralizes (i.e., begins to dissolve) the adjacent enamel crystal surface (CDC,2009). Demineralization involves the loss of calcium, phosphate, and carbonate. These minerals can be captured by surrounding plaque and be available for reuptake by the enamel surface. Fluoride, when present in the mouth, is also retained and concentrated in plaque. Fluoride works to control early dental caries in several ways. Fluoride concentrated in plaque and saliva inhibits the demineralization of sound enamel and enhances the remineralization (i.e., recovery) of demineralized enamel (Featherstone, 1999 Koulourides, 1990). As cryogenic bacteria metabolize carbohydrates and produce acid, fluoride is released from dental plaque in response to lowered pH at the tooth-plaque interface. The released fluoride and the fluoride present in saliva are then taken up, along with calcium and phosphate, by de-mineralized enamel to establish an improved enamel crystal structure. This improved structure is more acid resistant and contains more fluoride and less carbonate (Featherstone, 1999). Fluoride is more readily taken up by demineralized enamel than by sound enamel. Cycles of demineralization and remineralization continue throughout the lifetime of the tooth. Fluoride also inhibits dental caries by affecting the activity of cryogenic bacteria. As fluoride concentrates in dental plaque, it inhibits the process by which cryogenic bacteria metabolize carbohydrates to produce acid and affects bacterial production of adhesive polysaccharides. In laboratory studies, when a low concentration of fluoride is constantly present, one type of cryogenic bacteria, Streptococcus mutans, produces less acid. Whether this reduced acid production reduces the carcinogenicity of these bacteria in humans is unclear (Van Loveren, 1990). Saliva is a major carrier of topical fluoride. The concentration of fluoride in ductal saliva, as it is secreted from salivary glands, is low approximately 0.016 parts per million (ppm) in areas where drinking water is fluoridated and 0.006ppm in non fluoridated areas. This concentration of fluoride is not likely to affect cryogenic activity. However, drinking fluoridated water, brushing with fluoride toothpaste, or using other fluoride dental products can raise the concentration of fluoride in saliva present in the mouth 100- to 1,000-fold. The concentration returns to previous levels within 12 hours but, during this time, saliva serves as an important source of fluoride for concentration in plaque and for tooth remineralization (Murray,1993). Applying fluoride gel or other products containing a high concentration of fluoride to the teeth leaves a temporary layer of calcium fluoride-like material on the enamel surface. The fluoride in this material is released when the pH drops in the mouth in response to acid production and is available to remineralize enamel. In the earliest days of fluoride research, investigators hypothesized that fluoride affects enamel and inhibits dental caries only when incorporated into developing dental enamel (i.e., preeruptively, before the tooth erupts into the mouth) (Murray,1993). Evidence supports this hypothesis, but distinguishing a true preeruptive effect after teeth erupt into a mouth where topical fluoride exposure occurs regularly is difficult. However, a high fluoride concentration in sound enamel cannot alone explain the marked reduction in dental caries that fluoride produces . The prevalence of dental caries in a population is not inversely related to the concentration of fluoride in enamel, and a higher concentration of enamel fluoride is not necessarily more efficacious in preventing dental caries (Mcdonagh etal.,2000). The laboratory and epidemiologic research that has led to the better understanding of how fluoride prevents dental caries indicates that fluorides predominant effect is post eruptive and topical and that the effect depends on fluoride being in the right amount in the right place at the right time. Fluoride works primarily after teeth have erupted, especially when small amounts are maintained constantly in the mouth, specifically in dental plaque and saliva (Mcdonagh etal., 2000). Thus, adults also benefit from fluoride, rather than only children, as was previously assumed. RISK FOR DENTAL CARIES The prevalence and severity of dental caries in the United States have decreased substantially during the preceding 3 decades. National surveys have reported that the prevalence of any dental caries among children aged 1217 years declined from 90.4% in 19711974 to 67% in 19881991; severity (measured as the mean number of decayed, missing, or filled teeth) declined from 6.2 to 2.8 during this period (Burt, 1989). These decreases in caries prevalence and severity have been uneven across the general population; the burden of disease now is concentrated among certain groups and persons. For example, 80% of the dental caries in permanent teeth of U.S. children aged 517 years occurs among 25% of those children. Populations believed to be at increased risk for dental caries are those with low socioeconomic status (SES) or low levels of parental education, those who do not seek regular dental care, and those without dental insurance or access to dental services (Meskin,1995). Persons can be at high risk for dental caries even if they do not have these recognized factors. Children and adults who are at low risk for dental caries can maintain that status through frequent exposure to small amounts of fluoride (e.g., drinking fluoridated water and using fluoride toothpaste). Children and adults at high risk for dental caries might benefit from additional exposure to fluoride (e.g., mouth rinse, dietary supplements, and professionally applied products). All available information on risk factors should be considered before a group or person is identified as being at low or high risk for dental caries. However, when classification is uncertain, treating a person as high risk is prudent until further information or experience allows a more accurate assessment. This assumption increases the immediate cost of caries prevention or treatment and might increase the risk for enamel fluorosis for children aged NATIONAL GUIDELINES FOR FLUORIDE USE PHS recommendations for fluoride use include an optimally adjusted concentration of fluoride in community drinking water to maximize caries prevention and limit enamel fluorosis. This concentration ranges from 0.7ppm to 1.2ppm depending on the average maximum daily air temperature of the area (PHS, 1991). In 1991, PHS also issued policy and research recommendations for fluoride use. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which is responsible for the safety and quality of drinking water in the United States, sets a maximum allowable limit for fluoride in community drinking water at 4ppm and a secondary limit (i.e., non-enforceable guideline) at 2ppm (EPA,1998). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for approving prescription and over-the-counter fluoride products marketed in the United States and for setting standards for labeling bottled water and over-the-counter fluoride products (e.g., toothpaste and mouth rinse) (ADA,2007). Nonfederal agencies also have published guidelines on fluoride use. The American Dental Association (ADA) reviews fluoride products for caries prevention through its voluntary Seal of Acceptance program; accepted products are listed in the ADA Guide to Dental Therapeutics (ADA, 2007). A dosage schedule for fluoride supplements for infants and children aged 16 years, which is scaled to the fluoride concentration in the community drinking water, has been jointly recommended by ADA, the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (AAPD), and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) (Meskin,1995). In 1997, the Institute of Medicine published age-specific recommendations for total dietary intake of fluoride. These recommendations list adequate intake to prevent dental caries and tolerable upper intake, defined as a level unlikely to pose risk for adverse effects in almost all persons. COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF FLUORIDE MODALITIES Documented effectiveness is the most basic requirement for providing a health-care service and an important prerequisite for preventive services (e.g., caries-preventive modalities). However, effectiveness alone is not a sufficient reason to initiate a service. Other factors, including cost, must be considered. A modality is more cost-effective when deemed a less expensive way, from among competing alternatives, of meeting a stated objective (Garcia,1989). In public health planning, determination of the most cost-effective alternative for prevention is essential to using scarce resources efficiently. Dental-insurance carriers are also interested in cost-effectiveness so they can help purchasers use funds efficiently. Because half of dental expenditures are out of pocket (Garcia, 1989), this topic interests patients and their dentists as well. Potential improvement to quality of life is also a consideration. The contribution of a healthy dentition to quality of life at any age has not been quantified, but is probably valued by most persons. Although solid data on the cost-effectiveness of fluoride modalities alone and in combination are needed, this information is scarce. In 1989, the Cost Effectiveness of Caries Prevention in Dental Public Health workshop, which was attended by health economists, epidemiologists, and dental public health professionals, attempted to assess the cost-effectiveness of caries-preventive approaches available in the United States (Downer et al., 1981). Community Water Fluoridation Health economists at the 1989 workshop on cost-effectiveness of caries prevention calculated that the average annual cost of water fluoridation in the United States was $0.51 per person (range: $0.12$5.41) (Burt, 1989). In 1999 dollars, this cost would be $0.72 per person (range: $0.17$7.62). Factors reported to influence the per capita cost included: size of the community (the larger the population reached, the lower the per capita cost); number of fluoride injection points in the water supply system; amount and type of system feeder and monitoring equipment used; amount and type of fluoride chemical used, its price, and its costs of transportation and storage; and expertise of personnel at the water plant. When the effects of caries are repaired, the price of the restoration is based on the number of tooth surfaces affected. A tooth can have caries at >1 location (i.e., surface), so the number of surfaces saved is a more appropriate measure in calculating cost-effectiveness than the number of teeth with caries. The 1989 workshop participants concluded that water fluoridation is one of the few public health measures that results in true cost savings (i.e., the measure saves more money than it costs to operate); in the United States, water fluoridation cost an estimated average of $3.35 per carious surface saved ($4.71 in 1999 dollars). Even under the least favorable assumptions in 1989 (i.e., cities with populations A Scottish study conducted in 1980 reported that community water fluoridation resulted in a 49% saving in dental treatment costs for children aged 45 years and a 54% saving for children aged 1112 years (Downer et al., 1981). These savings were maintained even after the secular decline in the prevalence of dental caries was recognized. The effect of community water fluoridation on the costs of dental care for adults is less clear. This topic cannot be fully explored until the generations who grew up drinking optimally fluoridated water are older. School Water Fluoridation Costs for school water fluoridation are similar to those of any public water supply system serving a small population (i.e., Assessment of the Adverse Health Effects of fluoride Evidence of the adverse health effects of prolonged exposure to high concentrations of fluoride are well documented by several peer reviewed studies, which are examined in this paper. Higher concentrations of total ingested fluoride from potential sources like drinking water, food and beverages, dental-hygiene products such as toothpaste, and pesticide residues can have adverse health effects on humans (NRC, 2006). Some of the adverse health effects of fluoride in drinking water are enamel fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis, bone cancer and bone fracture. (NRC, 2006, PHS, 1991). Fluorosis is caused mainly by the ingestion of fluoride in drinking water (Viswanathan et al., 2009). Fluoride has high binding affinity for developing enamel and as such high concentration of cumulative fluoride during tooth formation can lead to enamel fluorosis, a dental condition from mild to severe form characterized by brown stains, enamel loss and surface pitting (DenBesten Thariani, 1992). These dental ef fects are believed to be caused by the effects of fluoride on the breakdown rates of early-secreted matrix proteins, and on the rates at which the degraded by-products are withdrawn from the maturing enamel (Aoba Fejerskov, 2002). Children are much more at risk of enamel fluorosis, especially in their critical period from 6 to 8 years of age, than adults. Fluoride uptake into enamel is possible only as a result of concomitant enamel dissolution, such as caries development (Fejerskov, Larsen, Richards, Baelum, 1994). There is a 10% prevalence of enamel fluorosis among U.S. children in communities with water fluoride concentrations at or near the EPAs MCLG of 4 mg/L (NRC, 2006). The CDC estimates that 32% of U.S. children are diagnosed with dental fluorosis (CDC, 2005). Today, there are convincing evidence that enamel fluorosis is a toxic effect of fluoride intake, and that its severe forms can produce adverse dental effects, and not just adverse cosmetic effects in humans (NRC, 200 6). Burt and Eklund (1999) states: â€Å"The most severe forms of fluorosis manifest as heavily stained, pitted, and friable enamel that can result in loss of dental function†. Epidemiological data from both observational and clinical studies have been examined. Sowers, Whitford, Clark Jannausch (2005) investigated prospectively for four years bone fracture in relation to fluoride concentrations in drinking water in a cohort study, by measuring serum fluoride concentrations and bone density of the hip, radius, and spine. The authors reported higher serum fluoride concentrations in the communities with fluoride concentrations at 4 mg/L in drinking water; and higher osteoporotic fracture rates in the high fluoride areas that were similar to those in their previous studies in 1986 and 1991. It is unclear in their recent study whether existing factors in the population like smoking rates, hormone replacement and physical activity were examined as potential cofounders for fractures. Fasting serum fluoride concentrations are considered a good measure of long-term exposure and of bone fluoride concentrations (Whitford, 1994; Clarkson et al., 2000). Findings by t he Sowers studies were complemented in several ways by Li et al. (2001) in a retrospective cohort ecologic study. The combined findings of Sowers et al. (2005) and Li et al., (2001) lend support to the biological gradients of exposures and fracture risk between 1 and 4 mg/L of fluoride concentration. Evidently, the physiological effect of fluoride on â€Å"bone quality† and the fractures observed in the referenced animal studies are consistent with the effects found in the observational studies. RECOMMENDATIONS Before promoting a fluoride modality or combination of modalities, the dental-care or other health-care provider must consider a persons or groups risk for dental caries, current use of other fluoride sources, and potential for enamel fluorosis. Although these recommendations are based on assessments of caries risk as low or high, the health-care provider might also differentiate among patients at high risk and provide more intensive interventions as needed. Also, a risk category can change over time; the type and frequency of preventive interventions should be adjusted accordingly. Continue and Extend Fluoridation of Community Drinking Water Community water fluoridation is a safe, effective, and inexpensive way to prevent dental caries. This modality benefits persons in all age groups and of all SES, including those difficult to reach through other public health programs and private dental care (CDC, 2001a). Community water fluoridation also is the most cost-effective way to prevent tooth decay among populations living in areas with adequate community water supply systems. Continuation of community water fluoridation for these populations and its adoption in additional U.S. communities are the foundation for sound caries-prevention programs. In contrast, the appropriateness of fluoridating stand-alone water systems that supply individual schools is limited. Widespread use of fluoride toothpaste, availability of other fluoride modalities that can be delivered in the school setting, and the current environment of low caries prevalence limit the appropriateness of fluoridating school drinking water at 4.5 times the optimal concentration for community drinking water. Decisions to initiate or continue school fluoridation programs should be based on an assessment of present caries risk in the target school(s), alternative preventive modalities that might be available, and periodic evaluation of program effectiveness (CDC, 2001a). Frequently Use Small Amounts of Fluoride All persons should receive frequent exposure to small amounts of fluoride, which minimizes dental caries by inhibiting demineralization of tooth enamel and facilitating tooth remineralization. This exposure can be readily accomplished by drinking water with an optimal fluoride concentration and brushing with fluoride toothpaste twice daily(CDC, 2001a). Supervise Use of Fluoride Toothpaste among Children Aged Childrens teeth should be cleaned daily from the time the teeth erupt in the mouth. Parents and caregivers should consult a dentist or other health-care provider before introducing a child aged Use an Alternative Source of Water for Children Aged 8 Years Whose Primary Drinking Water Contains >2 ppm Fluoride In some regions in the United States, community water supply systems and home wells contain a natural concentration of fluoride >2ppm. At this concentration, children aged 8 years are at increased risk for developing enamel fluorosis, including the moderate and severe forms, and should have an alternative source of drinking water, preferably one containing fluoride at an optimal concentration. In areas where community water supply systems contain >2ppm but 8 years. For families receiving water from home wells, testing is necessary to determine the natural fluoride concentration (CDC, 2001a). Label the Fluoride Concentration of Bottled Water Producers of bottled water should label the fluoride concentration of their products. Such labeling will allow consumers to make informed decisions and dentists, dental hygienists, and other health-care professionals to appropriately advise patients regarding fluoride intake and use of fluoride products (CDC, 2001). CONCLUDING POSITION STATEMENT When used appropriately, fluoride is a safe and effective agent that can be used to prevent and control dental caries. Fluoride has contributed profoundly to the improved dental health of persons in the United States and other countries. Fluoride is needed regularly throughout life to protect teeth against tooth decay. To ensure additional gains in oral health, water fluoridation should be extended to additional communities, and fluoride toothpaste should be used widely. Adoption of these and other recommendations in this paper could lead to considerable savings in public and private resources without compromising fluorides substantial benefit of improved dental health. What is consistent from the literature review is the fact that infants and children are much more at risk of overexposure and the development of adverse health effects. A community water fluoridation program (CWFP) is very safe and efficient, not only in terms of reducing dental caries, but also on the communitys budg et (CDC, 2001a). A CWFP can especially help those communities who have populations in the low SES category. These populations have children whose parents or guardians dont always have access to dental insurance and so regular dental checkups to curb the dental caries is not always an option. Reducing dental caries before they lead into more extreme oral morbidity can be very beneficial to these children. Implementing a fluoridated water program can also be beneficial to a whole community in terms of saving communities thousands and millions of dollars. Implementing a water program would follow strict guidelines set by the EPA, so the optimum level of fluoride would be followed, staying in the range of 0.7 to 1.2, where people would ingest no more than an average of 1 mg/liter of fluoride per day. Moderation is the key. There are studies confirming that ingestion of fluoride greater than the optimum level could produce dental fluorosis. Though unconfirmed by studies, individual reports have even suggested that ingestion of fluoride >8 mg/liter per day over a long period of time could produce skeletal fluorosis. However, with proper surveillance and reporting of fluoride in water systems, the greater population could be served, increasing the dental health of all individuals, especially the youth and saving dollars from excessive health care costs (ADA, 2009). Remember, a little prevention now can go a long way later. REFERENCES ADA (2005).Fluoridation Facts: ADA statement commemorating the 60th anniversary of community water fluoridation. Retrieved October 19, 2009 from www.ada.org/public/topics/fluoride/facts/fluoridation_facts.pdf ADA.(2007). ADA Guidelines to Dental Therapeutics. Retrieved October 23, 2009 from http://www.ada.org/prof/resources/pubs/advocacy.asp ADA (2009). Fluoride: Natures tooth decay fighter. J of the Am. Dental Ass., 140(1), 126-126. Alphajoh, C.(2009). (PhD Student). Service Learning Activity: Environmental Health. Walden University. Assessed November 13, 2009 from http://environmentalhealthtoday.wordpress.com/2009/05/13/commentary-and-position-statement-on-the-safety-and-efficacy-of-water-fluoridation/ Aoba, T., Fejerskov, O. (2002). Dental fluorosis: Chemistry and biology. Crit. Rev. Oral. Biol. Med., 13(2), 155-170. Bowden, G.(1990). Effects of fluoride on the microbial ecology of dental plaque. J Dent Res 1990; 69(special issue):653—9 Brunelle, J.(1987. The prevalence of dental fluorosis in U.S. children. J Dent Res.(Special issue) 68:995. Bunker, J.P., Frazier, H.S., Mosteller, F. (1994). Improving health: measuring effects of medical care. Milbank Quarterly,72, 225-58. Burt, B. (1989).(Ed.). Proceedings for the workshop: Cost-effectiveness of caries prevention in dental public health, Ann Arbor, Michigan, May 1719, 1989. J Public Health Dent 1989; 49(special issue):3317. Burt, B.A., Eklund, S.A. (1999). Dentistry, dental practice, and the community. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: WB Saunders Company, 204-20. CDC (1999). Ten great public health achievements United States, 1900 1999. MMWR,48(12), 214-243. CDC (2001a). Promoting oral health: intervention for preventing dental caries, oral and pharyngeal cancers and sport-related craniofacial injuries a report on recommendations of the Task Force on Community Preventive Services. MMWR 2001, 50(21), 1-12. CDC. (2001). Recommendations for using fluorideto prevent and control dental

Amalgam Model

Counseling Theory: An Amalgam Model, 2008, Name, affirms that science proves what the Bible has long understood and says about man or human nature; that Scripture alone has the correct diagnosis of the sickness and potential outcomes of his endeavors and challenges as well as the results especially, of a fallen nature. The author uses the scientific researches that show how the truths of Scripture are explained and made manifest in the lives of men and women.Practitioners who make use of this model that there is neither competition nor confusion as to the pre-eminence of Scripture; rather, it presupposes that science complements what the Biblical writers as revealed, have long known the real and lasting solutions to the â€Å"sicknesses† that man ahs encountered. I. Introduction Psychology has made great strides in the development of principles and methods and the discovery of facts which find useful application in various aspects of everyday life.The objectives of psychology are : (1) to understand human behavior; (2) to predict human behavior by means of observation and experiment; (3) to influence or alter the behavior of he individual or group in desirable ways so that he can achieve the goal he desires. Behavior is described and analyzed. On this basis, an attempt to predict behavior is possible, and although this may not thoroughly and completely be accomplished in some endeavors, the basic understanding then is that there are certain expectations concerning how any person would act or decide upon things that are within his conscious awareness.Psychology is of great importance to man since psychological problems are common to group relations, in whatever framework a person or group of individuals come from. The thrust of this paper is to develop my own theory of behavior and putting these in the context of the helping relationship. It starts with a basic understanding of human behavior coming from various viewpoints or perspectives. Then it discuss es the reasons why an individual becomes mentally sick or develops unhealthy patterns of behaving towards anything that affect him.This includes the maladjustments that are usually prevalent in a person’s day-to-day functioning especially if and when he has not learned or developed the skills of rightly apprehending the tests of life, so to speak. The work of a counselor is a privilege since the counselee or client will be unfolding his life and makes himself vulnerable to a stranger. It is not an easy choice to make hence, all the training and knowledge would be indispensable to help the client reveal and trust himself to another. Counseling is not a very easy job.But it can be facilitated well when there is a clear vision of what and how it unfolds in the relationship that is established with the client. II. Discussion The paper is divided into different parts and meant to answer to the requirements stated as follows. A. Summary of my overall approach Psychology is the scie ntific of human behavior and mental processes; a study which is of considerable interest to almost all people. In the pursuit of this study is the important feature of understanding the goals or objectives.To describe, explain and predict behavior and if possible control or modify it, are the main objectives of this scientific discipline. These objectives confine as well as broaden student’s approach towards a deeper perspective of the field in the sense that he/she will have a grasp on the variety of subject matters that psychology provides, the advances or breakthroughs it has attained, its inadequacies and shortcomings, as well as forthcoming challenges the discipline faces. Since human individuals are complex and changing, the study is fascinating yet possesses a certain degree of difficulty.Fascinating because it explores all the facets of being human and possessing a certain degree of difficulty because of its multifarious sub-disciplines. Sigmund Freud offered a psycho analytic viewpoint on the diagnosis and understanding of a person’s mental health. Other perspectives, the behavioristic paradigm offers to see this in a different light. The psychoanalytic perspective emphasizes childhood experiences and the role of the unconscious mind in determining future behavior and in explaining and understanding current based on past behavior.Basing on his personality constructs of the Id, Ego and the Superego, Freud sees a mentally healthy person as possessing what he calls Ego strength. On the other hand, the behavior therapist sees a person as a â€Å"learner† in his environment, with the brain as his primary organ of survival and vehicle for acquiring his social functioning. With this paradigm, mental health is a result of the environment’s impact on the person; he learns to fear or to be happy and therein lies the important key in understanding a person’s mental state.Considering that the achievement and maintenance of mental health is one of the pursuits of psychology, the following is a brief outline of what psychologists would endorse a healthy lifestyle. The individual must consider each of the following and incorporate these in his/her day to day affairs: 1. The Medical doctor’s viewpoint – well-being emphasis than the illness model 2. The Spiritual viewpoint- a vital spiritual growth must be on check. 3. The Psychologist’s viewpoint- emotional and relationship factors in balance.4. The Nutritionist’s viewpoint – putting nutrition and health as top priority. 5. The Fitness Expert’s viewpoint- Exercise as part of a daily regimen. The theory I have in mind then is an amalgamation of several approaches, primarily the integration of the Christian worldview and the theories set forth by Cognitive-behaviorists and psychoanalytic models, and biological/physical continuum. There are other good models but a lot of reasons exist why they cannot be â€Å"good enough; † a lot depends on my own personality.Being authentic to who you are, your passion, is effectively communicated across an audience whether it is a negative or positive one. The basic way of doing the â€Å"amalgamation† or integration is that the Christian worldview takes precedence over the rest of the approaches. Although many of the concepts and premises of each theory mentioned are sound and at times efficacious, when it clashes with the faith-based theory, the former must give way to the latter.It is understood then, that I thoroughly examined each of the theory and set them against the backdrop of spirituality. Interpreting a problem that a client suffers for instance, entails that the theoretical viewpoint that I am convinced with, has better chances of properly understanding the maladjustments that the client had been suffering. To come up with the balanced worldview (an integration in other words), the balance between the realms mentioned, including the true fr ame of human individuals and the true nature of God (or theology) are properly considered.Thoroughly accepting the fact that there is no contest between the natural and the spiritual; only that troubles arise when one realm is overemphasized at the expense of another. This thin line or slight tension between the two levels is best expressed in the personhood of Jesus Christ, who was a perfect man as well as God. If we start to equate ourselves with that notion (which is usually happening) and we start to think that we are balanced, then we surely lack understanding or real self-awareness of the fact that we are deeply and seriously out of balance and this is one reason why we need help.B. Philosophy and Basic Assumptions ~What does a mentally healthy person look like and how are his traits different from those who are mentally ill or are developing a certain form of illness. Personality is more than poise, charm, or physical appearance. It includes habits, attitudes, and all the phy sical, emotional, social, religious and moral aspects that a person possesses. However, to be more precise, the explicit behavioral styles covered in the course, perhaps, best captivate an individual’s personality and how he/she is understood.With the different behavioral styles, an overall pattern of various characteristics is seen. Like a â€Å"psychograph,† a person’s profile is pulled together and at a glance, the individual can be compared with other people in terms of relative strengths and weaknesses. The term mentally ill is frightening to many people. Movies, books, and magazines often depict mental illness in frightening ways. In some cases, adolescents suffering from a mental illness do act unpredictably or even dangerously. With proper diagnosis and treatment, most of the symptoms of mental illnesses can be controlled.It is tempting to distinguish healthy adolescents from adolescents with mental illness problems. However, there is often a fine line b etween mental health and mental illness. It is important to understand that mental illnesses vary in their severity. For example, many adolescents suffered from various levels of anxiety or depression. Others have suffered from serious mental disorders with biological origins. Education about the adolescents` mental illness is vital for those with mental health problems as well as for the adolescents` friends and family.Many of the disorders or mental illnesses recognized today without a doubt have their psychodynamic explanation aside from other viewpoints like that of the behaviourist, or the cognitivists. From simple childhood developmental diseases to Schizophrenia, there is a rationale that from Freud’s camp is able to explain (Kaplan et al, 1994). ~ What constitutes a mentally/emotionally healthy person and what causes a person to become dysfunctional? The Christian point of view argues that man is not necessarily or inherently good and that starts him off to a bad star t.The environment further either encourages that innate evil or tones it down. However, the basic idea is that there is a spiritual aspect and this is addressed in what the Christian Scriptures declare as the â€Å"renewing of the mind. † Because this is an integrated approach, it recognizes the work of science with the concept or understanding that it only confirms what Scripture recognizes or identifies all along. Psychology reminds us of the differing opinions of experts in this field. It talks about personality which represents all that the mind, or the mental and affective aspects of a person.People talk a lot about personality or behavior as if it’s such an uncomplicated and unfussy concept, but they end up having difficulty defining it when asked. They are apt to say that it (behavior or personality in general) is something a person â€Å"has. † They describe the behavioral components of particular people in words like â€Å"friendly,† â€Å"nice, † â€Å"forceful,† or â€Å"aggressive,† to paint a picture of what they mean by the term and as a result end, instead, in vague descriptions of how a person usually behaves with other people.On the other hand, when we base our descriptions on concrete and observable actions that people commonly do or adapt, we come up with what experts call as â€Å"behavioral profile. † There are different styles of behavior as well as there are no right and wrong profile. When we come up with correct profiling, the expected result is that we develop ways of getting to know a more concise and accurate picture of ourselves, or people in general. Personality is more than poise, charm, or physical appearance. It includes habits, attitudes, and all the physical, emotional, social, religious and moral aspects that a person possesses.However, to be more precise, the explicit behavioral styles covered in the course, perhaps, best captivate an individual’s personality and how he/she is understood. With the different behavioral styles, an overall pattern of various characteristics is seen. Like a â€Å"psychograph,† a person’s profile is pulled together and at a glance, the individual can be compared with other people in terms of relative strengths and weaknesses. A healthy personality does not mean it does not have any difficulties at all. It means that a person has the capabilities to withstand any turmoil or stress that come his way.He has learned the skills to make him adjust to the internal and external stresses; minimizing conflicts from within and without but in a healthy and normal functioning way. ~ How does personal growth occur in the context of your therapy? Personal growth occurs in the context of self-insights; insights concerning the workings of one’s mind in relation to the structures and stimuli around the person. He self-insight is very significant and crucial to the client for him to be able to work well with t hose who are there to assist in his recovery and eventual personal growth. †¢ What makes your theory work?Christian counselors are prepared to help their clients sort the distinctions and similarities between psychology and the Christian faith? This is important because basic to therapy success is that when therapist and client share similar worldviews, the therapy may then advance. Moreover, do Christian counselors and those in this kind of profession really pursue real interest and deep thirst for a systematic and regular study of the Bible? If they do not do so, they will be deficient of the overall grasp of the Bible’s structure and content and lack a working knowledge of basic biblical doctrines.A deep and thriving relationship and commitment to an equally gifted Bible – believing church will also benefit the counselor in his/her personal life and practice, thus a necessary requirement,. C. Key Concepts ~ Explain the primary points of your theory as if you we re to summarize it quickly for someone The Psychodynamic perspective is based on the work of Sigmund Freud. He created both a theory to explain personality and mental disorders, and the form of therapy known as psychoanalysis.The psychodynamic approach assumes that all behavior and mental processes reflect constant and often unconscious struggles within the person. These usually involved conflicts between our need to satisfy basic biological instincts, for example, for food, sex or aggression, and the restrictions imposed by society. Not all of those who take a psychodynamic approach accept all of Freud’s original ideas, but most would view abnormal or problematic behavior as the result of a failure to resolve conflicts adequately.Many of the disorders or mental illnesses recognized today without a doubt have their psychodynamic explanation aside from other viewpoints like that of the behaviourist, or the cognitivists. From simple childhood developmental diseases to Schizophr enia, there is a rationale that from Freud’s camp is able to explain (Kaplan et al, 1994). In the psychodynamic theory, the following three assumptions help guide a student of human behavior or an expert in this field determine the underlying factors that explain the overt manifestations of specific behaviors.These assumptions therefore, help guide the diagnosis of the presence or absence of mental illness. They are the same assumptions that guide the therapist in choosing what treatment that will better help heal, cure or alleviate the symptoms. These assumptions are: – â€Å"There are instinctive urges that drive personality formation. † – â€Å"Personality growth is driven by conflict and resolving anxieties. † – â€Å"Unresolved anxieties produce neurotic symptoms† (Source: Kaplan et al, 1994). The goals of treatment here include alleviating patient of the symptoms which specifically works to uncover and work through unconscious c onflict.The task of psychodynamic therapy is â€Å"to make the unconscious conscious to the patient† (â€Å"Models of abnormality†, National Extension College Trust, Ltd). Employing the psychodynamic viewpoint, the therapist or social scientist believes that emotional conflicts, or neurosis, and/or disturbances in the mind are caused by unresolved conflicts which originated during childhood years. In the psychodynamic approach the treatment modality frequently used includes dreams and free association, at times hypnosis (as preferred by either the therapist or by the client).The therapist actively communicates with the client in the on-going sessions. The scenario appears that a given patient may have up to five times a week session and runs up to five years in length (Rubinstein et al. , 2007). Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy postulated primarily by Ellis and Beck â€Å"facilitates a collaborative relationship between the patient and therapist. † With the idea tha t the counselor and patient together cooperate to attain a trusting relationship and agree which problems or issues need to come first in the course of the therapy.For the Cognitive Behaviorist Therapist, the immediate and presenting problem that the client is suffering and complaining from takes precedence and must be addressed and focused in the treatment. There is instantaneous relief from the symptoms, and may be encouraged or spurred on to pursue in-depth treatment and reduction of the ailments where possible. The relief from the symptoms from the primary problem or issue will inspire the client to imagine or think that change is not impossible after all.In this model, issues are dealt directly in a practical way. In the cognitive approach alone, the therapist understands that a client or patient comes into the healing relationship and the former’s role is to change or modify the latter’s maladjusted or error-filled thinking patterns. These patterns may include wi shful thinking, unrealistic expectations, constant reliving and living in the past or even beyond the present and into the future, and overgeneralizing. These habits lead to confusion, frustration and eventual constant disappointment.This therapeutic approach stresses or accentuates the rational or logical and positive worldview: a viewpoint that takes into consideration that we are problem-solvers, have options in life and not that we are always left with no choice as many people think. It also looks into the fact that because we do have options then there are many things that await someone who have had bad choices in the past, and therefore can look positively into the future. Just as the cognitive-behavioral model also recognizes the concept of insight as well, this is only a matter of emphasis or focus.In behavioral/cognitive-behavioral therapies the focus is on the modification or control of behavior and insight usually becomes a tangential advantage. Techniques include CBT thr ough such strategy as cognitive restructuring and the current frequently used REBT for Rational Emotive-Behavior Therapy where irrational beliefs are eliminated by examining them in a rational manner (Corey, 2004; Davison and Neale, 2001). Whereas in insight therapies the focus or emphasis is on the patient’s ability in understanding his/her issues basing on his inner conflicts, motives and fears.Coaching the patient on the step by step procedure of CBT is a basic and fundamental ingredient. Here the client is enlightened as to the patterns of his thinking and the errors of these thoughts which bore fruit in his attitudes and behavior. His/her thoughts and beliefs have connections on his/her behavior and must therefore be â€Å"reorganized. † For instance, the ways that a client looks at an issue of his/her life will direct the path of his reactivity to the issue. When corrected at this level, the behavior follows automatically (Rubinstein et al. , 2007; Corey, 2004). D. Therapeutic Goals~ What are your general goals in therapy? Christian counseling admittedly embraces in reality, a basic integration of the biblical precepts on the view of man and psychology’s scientific breakthroughs in addressing the dilemmas that beset human individuals. Depending on the persuasion of the practitioner, especially whether he or she comes from either the purely theological or â€Å"secular† preparation, Christian counseling can either lean to certain degrees of theology or psychology. According to Larry Crabb, â€Å"If psychology offers insights which will sharpen our counseling skills and increase our effectiveness, we want to know them.If all problems are at core spiritual matters we don’t want to neglect the critically necessary resources available through the Lord by a wrong emphasis on psychological theory† (Crabb in Anderson et al, 2000). Dr. Crabb’s position certainly ensures that science in particular, has its place in counseling in as much as theology does. He made sure that all means are addressed as the counselor approaches his profession, especially in the actual conduction of both the diagnostic and therapeutic or intervention phases (Crabb in Anderson et al. , 2000).Trauma inducing and crisis triggering situations have spiraled its occurrence and in its primacy in the US and in many other countries in recent years. Its broad spectrum ranges from the national disaster category such as that of Hurricane Katrina or the 911 terrorist strikes in New York, Spain and England, to private instances such as a loved one’s attempt at suicide, the murder of a spouse or child, the beginning of mental illness, and the worsening situation of domestic violence (Teller et al, 2006).The acute crisis episode is a consequence of people who experience life-threatening events and feel overwhelmed with difficulty resolving the inner conflicts or anxiety that threaten their lives. They seek the help of counse lors, paramedics and other health workers in crisis intervention centers to tide them over the acute episodes they are encountering. These are defining moments for people and must be adequately addressed else they lead lives with dysfunctional conduct patterns or disorders (Roberts et al, 2006).